Mineral Material; Prot

d-How Much Food Is Ne

uid Nourishment-The C

the Mother's Diet and

he increase is greater, and it is relatively greater in later pregnancies than in the first. During the early months of pregnancy the weight generally remains stationary or suffers a slight loss; even in those rare instances in which t

the embryo. Between the two organisms there exists a relation which resembles that existing between a house in course of construction and the contractor who supplies the building material. The mother furnishes what is needed to construct the "living edifice," as Huxley called the growing embryo, but she is not responsible for the lines of the building. The embryo is both architect and mechanic, designing the structure and arranging the "organic bricks" in their proper places. The work of construction necessitates the expenditure of an appreciable amount of energy and the creation of waste products that must be removed, lest they accumulate and interfere with the growin

r signifies that they need material to replace what has been used up. The substances thus required, if the wants of the body are to be satisfied correctly, are called the food-stuffs; and they are the same during pregnan

ts in the heat and energy which they yield when acted upon in the tissues. Water and mineral matter, on the other hand, are never a source of energy; they assist in building new tissue or in repairing tissue that alread

completely withdrawn from his diet. Fat or carbohydrate, on the other hand, or even both of them, may be excluded for some time without causing serious inconvenience. It is true, nev

protein content; in the vegetables starch, which is one of the carbohydrates, predominates. As to the choice of food and the amount that is necessary for the average person, generally the appetite is a safe guide; but the accurate observations of physiologists have gone so far as to determine the exact requirements of the body. Not the l

s has been found to be between two and three quarts. Of this amount the urine constitutes nearly two-thirds; and the remaining third is eliminated through the skin, the lungs, and the bowels. Although the defic

al ingredient of the living substance in all the tissues, (3) it is present in the blood and in the other body fluids, where it is of service in such vital processes as the beating of the heart, the transp

hich imparts to the blood one of its most essential qualities, occurs in relatively large amounts in apples, spinach, lettuce, potatoes, peas, carrots, and meats. Only now and then does it become advisable to add iron deliberately to the diet. Similarly lime (calcium) the material that makes the bones hard, is present in quanti

ed in our tissues. Although most persons derive their protein in part from meat, milk, and eggs, it is possible to satisfy the requirements

arious waste products. From such investigations it has been found that the quantity of protein required to repair the breaking down of the tissues is not great. The average man consumes approximately a quarter of a pound (100 to 120 grams) of protein daily; but this quantity is in excess of his real needs. Indeed, Chittenden has shown that for various classes of individuals, namely, students, athletes and soldiers,

to the other extreme. The consumption of over- large quantities of protein, as would be the case if we lived exclusively upon meat, increases putrefacti

s of India. By boiling the plant we call sugar-cane they obtained a substance to which they gave the name Sakkara, and from this our word sugar evidently originated. The roots of this plant were carried in

the common vegetables. Glucose is especially suited to act as nourishing food. In keeping with that fact our digestive juices convert most of the sugars we eat, if not all of them, into glucose, which is regularly present in our blood. It is unnecessary to enum

naturally the energy requirements of any individual are influenced by his weight and by the work he does. But we may take as a standard the results of an extensive study of American families which indicate that women require four-fifths as much energy-yielding food as men. It also seems safe to conclude that

urse of a day the average person consumes no more than one or two ounces. The natural aversion which many feel toward fat may possibly depend upon the difficulty with which they assimilate i

e of heat that we generate and protects us against the penetration of cold. This food-stuff, theref

for the fat in our bodies. Carbohydrates, if in excess of momentary needs, are partly converted into fat and stored as such. A reserve s

ructure, begin in the mouth and are not completed until some time after the food has entered the intestine. As the food moves through the alimentary canal, it is mixed with the various digestive juices containing ferments, such as pepsin, which are the active agents of digestion. Although digestive processes go on automatically, they are, in a degree that is

These glands must be warned when to pour out their secretion, and their very first warning usually comes from the agreeable sensations experienced when we see, smell, or taste inviting food. If we are

he saliva, however, acts only upon starch; and, moreover, its action upon this carbohydrate is weak unless the food is thoroughly chewed and mixed in the mouth. Most of us, perhaps, overlook the importance of mastication, which not only cr

proteins. They alone are attacked by pepsin, a ferment secreted by the mucous membrane of the stomach. Moreover, si

he gastric juice, and this flow is greater if we enjoy what we eat. Furthermore, it has been shown that, after entrance into the stomach, the food itself increases the flow of the digestive juices. All article

l says, "is not so much in its own action as in its combined action with that which takes place in the intestine." It is even possible for satisfactory digestion to take place without the assistance of the stomach. This fact has been substantiated

imple chemical fragments, which are absorbed by the intestinal wall. Digestion in the intestine is carried on through the agency of a number of ferments, the more important of which are supplied in the juice manufactured by the

is notably larger than the residue from meat. The undigested portions of all the food- stuffs collect in the lowermost portion of the intestine and form a part of the feces. He

y is occupied with the formation of the embryo from relatively simple structural elements, the second half with its growth into an infant, which acquires ninety per cent. of its substance and weight at birth after the fifth month of embryonic development. A similar contrast may be observed in the nutritional proces

ter conception has taken place. To most persons, however, it is not clear that the quantity of food ordinarily eaten will suffice also during the later months of pregnancy. On the contrary, popular opinion holds that the pros

e are, as we have seen, to build or to repair tissue and to furnish heat and energy. Since these needs of the body during pregnancy-as at all other t

d contain just enough protein to cover the needs of the body and keep their weight constant. Subsequently, when these animals became pregnant precisely the same amount of protein was fed to them. The result was that they gained in weight, and at the same time the waste products of protein they threw off were notably diminished. Such observations, of which there have been a large number yielding concordant results, may be safely taken to mean that an amount of protein previously satisfactory fo

ade to cut down the amount of minerals in the food for the purpose of softening the fetal skeleton. The success sometimes attributed to these efforts is, however, very doubtful, for we know that the mother's tissues will be robbed of minerals for the embryo whenever her food fails

ineral matter. It has been found that just before the fetus becomes mature the energy requirements of the mother are approximately one-fifth greater than in the non- pregnant condition. It is certain, however, that no extra demand for

consumption of fatty food, over and above that previously found agreeable, is not only unnecessary but undesirable. Every-day experience teaches that less fat taken with the meals promotes the

r the surplus ordinarily taken meets every need incident to her additional energy requirements. Because we eat more than we need, someone has said, with as much truth as humor, that prospective mothers "neither want nor need to eat for two. The fact is more likely that enough for one is too much for two." For th

mes between meals. Such an arrangement modifies a ravenous appetite, and it is, at the same time, beneficial to those who are not inclined to eat enough at the regular meals. If small amounts of food are taken five or six times a day, a tendency to be nauseated, which is not uncommon in the early months of pregnancy, can often be averted. In the latter months, too, because the capacity of the stomach is dimi

se, for everyone; but during pregnancy it is especially necessary for the building of new tissue and for safeguarding the mother's kidneys. Prospective mothers would protect themselves against a number of ailments if they were more careful to drink a sufficient amount of liquids. They may easily deter

is should be water. The rest may be taken in the form of milk, soup, cocoa, and chocolate. Against the moderate use of tea and coffee no valid objection can be raised; the tradition that they may cause miscarriage is incorrect. For well-known reasons the habitual use of strong tea or coffee

lse in the selection of food. She should, however, choose what will agree with her and avoid that which she cannot digest and assimilate. Personal experience

h aims to furnish an individual the exact amount of food, and usually to furnish it at a minimum cost. Its principles are of great practical importance to the commissary of an army or to the purveyor of an institution which provides for large numbers of people; but it is neither necessary

fore, to guide healthy persons in the selection of their food are not obtainable; neither are they desirable, for the exercise of individual preference possesses notable advantages. In order, however, that there may

of one variety or another, such as apples, peaches, apricots, pears, oranges, figs, cherries, pineapples, grapes, plums, strawberries, ras

which the body needs. Its laxative effect is most pronounced when it is eaten alone, as, for example, in the morning before breakfast or at night upon going to bed; cooked fruit taken with the meals acts much less effectively. Fruit and

y, but it is necessary to eat only a small quantity of bread, if the diet includes a relatively large amount of vegetables. It is advantageous to use bread made from unbolted flour (Graham bread) or from corn meal, because the coarse undigested residue which they leave stimulates the movements of the intestine and assists in overcoming the constipat

rom the diet altogether. Other vegetables produce flatulence, and for that reason parsnips and beans may cause discomfort. The prejudice, however, which exists against onions, asparagus, and celery should not be heeded; all of them are harmless, and celery thoroughly cooked with milk

et more agreeable, and this is sufficient reason for using it. Furthermore, no fair objection can be raised against the use of animal food, provided the pregnancy is normal. It is imp

ly the prospective mother may have any animal food she wishes: beef, veal, lamb, poultry, game, fish, oysters, and clams. The rela

is the need of food increased in the first half of pregnancy. During the last two or three months, while the most notable growth of the fetus is in progress, there is a perceptible increase in the amount of energy expended by the mother, and this may be readily

regard to individual appetite and should be varied frequently. Thorough mastication always increases the efficiency of a diet. Thus the food will b

child will be "marked." In the light of what has already been said regarding maternal impressions, this evidently is nonsense. A prospective mother, like anyone else, does frequently

e unnatural cravings are not of sound mind. With reference to them a physician of unusually broad experience wrote fifty years ago, "I have never met with any example of this sort; whi

rimentation was resorted to and gave identical results in the hands of independent observers. It was found, as I have already stated, that the same diet which had previously kept an animal's weight constant was sufficient to meet her requirements during pregnancy and also to provide for the growth of her offspring. The mother animal was actually found somewhat heavier at the termination of pregnancy than at the beginning. It seemed fair to conclude, therefore, that nutrition had proce

y, especially if they also fail to take exercise, give birth to large children. On the other hand, it is said that children born during times of famine are frequently delivered prematurely, or, if mature, they are smal

ive amount of starch or sugar in the mother's diet is stored as fat in the child. On this account it is reasonable to eat sparingly of candy, cak

diminish the fat in its body. To this end, generally about two months before the expected date of birth, the mother's diet is arranged to consist chiefly of meat; and as far as possible she is denied candy, sweet desserts, soup, bread, cereals, vegetables, and

minerals are also unnatural, for we have learned that whenever the mother's food fails to contain the material the fetus requ

er and will cause unnecessary growth of the fetus. On the other hand, there can be no justification for measures that tend to weaken her. She may be careful, in other words, to avoid over- growth of the fetus, but should not adopt a diet so restricted as to interfere with norm